Vicarious Learning

           Observational learning is also known as vicarious learning or learning through modeling. This occurs when a person learns through observation without direct reinforcement or punishment of behavior, i.e., vicariously (Friedman & Schustack, 2016; Nicholle, Symmonds, & Dolan, 2011).

           Bandura postulated that vicarious learning is dependent upon the positive or negative consequences of modeled behavior as well as possible anticipated consequences of the behavior which he termed outcome expectancy. If the initial behavior observed is neither rewarded nor punished, but there is a strict rule in place against the behavior, it is less likely the behavior will be imitated. This is because Bandura explains that “people will not mindlessly copy the behavior of others, but rather they consciously decide whether or not to perform a behavior that is learned by observation (Friedman & Schustack, 2016, pp.169).”  An example of this would be when younger sibling witnesses an older sibling successfully break a well-known rule. Even though the older sibling succeeded in this instance, the younger sibling is aware of the negative consequence should they be caught imitating the behavior.

           Vicarious learning is dependent upon a variety of influences such as external perceptions of the observed, internal attributes of the observer, as well as perceptions of the behavior itself relative to its simplicity or complexity (Friedman & Schustack, 2016). For example, perceived similarities to the observed such as age, gender, or competence increase the likelihood of imitation. This may be directly or indirectly related to the observer’s perception of their attributes and self-system. Individuals with less confidence in their abilities or are self-effacing are less likely to imitate modeled behaviors, especially complex ones.

           Successful replication of modeled behavior can also be directly dependent on cognitive and physical abilities such as the individual’s ability to correctly interpret and encode the behavior requiring both attention and retention. They also need to be physically capable of accurately reproducing the behavior, and this requires both motivation to do so and motor reproduction (Groenendijk, et. al., 2013).

           Certain aspects of personality are possible to acquire through vicarious learning. Numerous studies have shown that children who are exposed to violent television or play violent games tend to become more aggressive than their non-violence viewing counterparts. However, society directly punishes aggressive behavior while creating a positive social image for people participating in violence-viewing. Of course, on the other hand, kindness and morality may also be taught vicariously through the positive acts and deeds of others being observed.

           Groenendijk et. al. (2013) demonstrated that creativity may be enhanced through vicarious learning as opposed to the guided practice in a series of experiments with high school students. In their experiments, the creative process was modeled for students while the observed individual narrated their thoughts as they worked. The researchers’ hypotheses were that students in the experimental condition (modeled behavior with cognitive component) would demonstrate increased creativity represented by convergent and divergent thought processes versus those who participated in a guided instruction condition.

References

Friedman, H. S. & Schustack, M. W. (2016). Personality: Classic theories and modern research (6th ed.). MA: Pearson

Groenendijk, T., Janssen, T., Rijlaarsdam, G., & van den Bergh, H. (2013). Learning to be creative. The effects of observational learning on students' design products and processes. Learning and Instruction, 28, 35-47.

Nicolle, A., Symmonds, M., & Dolan, R. J. (2011). Optimistic biases in observational learning of value. Cognition, 119(3), 394-402.